فهرست کهنسالترین درختان
این مقاله ممکن است حاوی ترجمهٔ تقریبی از زبانی دیگر باشد و ممکن است کل یا بخشی از متن آن توسط یک رایانه یا مترجمهای ماشینی تولید شده باشد. |
چنانچه در منابع پذیرفته گزارش شدهاست، این فهرستی از کهنسالترین درختان شناخته شدهاست. تعریفهایی که از تکدرختان ناوابسته شده گوناگون است. افزون بر این، سن درختان از روشهای گوناگونی به دست میآید؛ مانند نمونهبرداری با بهره از روش درختگاهشماری یا برآوردهای آماری. برای همین، این مقاله سه فهرست از کهنسالترین درختان را به دست میدهد که هر یک از آنها معیارهای گوناگونی را میسنجند.
سه نمودار از گروه درخت، وجود دارد که بر پایه سن و گونهها فهرست شدهاند. نمودار نخست درختانی را در بر میگیرد که کمینه سن آنها به روش مستقیم - یا از راه درختگاهشماری یا برپایه تاریخگذاری رادیوکربن اندازهگیری شدهاست. ممکن است بسیاری از این درختان حتی کهنسالتر از سن یاد شده باشند، اما بخش چوبی کهنتر این درختان از میان رفتهاست. برای برخی از درختان کهنسال، کانون درختی به اندازهای از دست رفتهاست که سن آنها بهطور مستقیم تعیین نمیشود. در عوض، برآوردها بر پایه اندازه درخت و نرخ رشد فرضی انجام میشود. نمودار دوم درختانی را با این سنهای تخمینی در بر میگیرد. واپسین نمودار پرگنهٔ تاگی را نشان میدهد که در آن ممکن است هیچ درختچهای جداگانه چندان کهنسال نباشد، اما برآیند آنها، سراسر تاگ را به عنوان یکایی کهنسال بازمیشناساند.
رکورد داران فعلی برای درختان غیر کلونی فردی، کاجهای بریستلون Great Basin از کالیفرنیا و نوادا، ایالات متحده هستند. با استفاده از مراجعه به حلقههای درخت، تقریباً پنج هزار سال قدمت نشان داده شدهاند.
پرگنهی تاگی میتواند خیلی طولانیتر از یک درخت مجزا زنده بماند. مستعمرهای از ۴۷۰۰۰ درخت صنوبر آسپن (ملقب به پاندو)، ۱۰۶ جریب فرنگی (۴۳ هکتار) پوشش میدهد ۱۰۶ جریب فرنگی (۴۳ هکتار) در جنگل ملی Fishlake یوتا، یکی از قدیمیترین و بزرگترین ارگانیسمهای جهان به حساب میآید. این پرگنه قدمت ۸۰ هزار ساله تخمین زده شدهاست، اگر چه نمونه حلقههای درختی به صورت تک درخت، در سطح زمین، درختان فقط بهطور متوسط حدود ۱۳۰ سال قدمت دارند.[۱][۲][۳][۴] مستعمره درختان کاج هوون با پوشش ۲٫۵ جریب فرنگی (۱٫۰ هکتار) در کوه خوانده (تاسمانیا) حدود ۱۰٬۰۰۰ سال قدمت تخمین زده میشود، همانطور که با نمونههای DNA گرفته شده از گرده جمعآوریشده از رسوب یک دریاچه در مجاورت تعیین میشود. درختان انفرادی در این گروه قدمت بیش از ۴۰۰۰ سال را ندارند که طبق نمونههای حلقه درخت مشخص میشود.[۵]
تک درختها با سن تأیید شده
ویرایش! style="width:10%;" |نام ! style="width:5%;" |سن (بر حسب سال) ! style="width:22.5%;" |گونهها ! style="width:10%;" |مکان ! style="width:12.5%;" |کشور ! style="width:40%;" |توضیح
Name | Age (years) |
Year Germinated | Species | Location | Country | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prometheus (WPN-114) |
4,900+ | 2,900+ BCE | Great Basin bristlecone pine Pinus longaeva |
Wheeler Peak, Nevada | United States | Cut down by Donald Rusk Currey in 1964.[۶] |
Methuselah | ۴,۸۵۶[nb ۱] | 2,832 BCE | Great Basin bristlecone pine Pinus longaeva |
White Mountains (California) | United States | It is the oldest known living (non-clonal) tree in the world.[۸] |
Alerce Milenario or Gran Abuelo | ۳,۶۵۳–5,484 | 1,630+ BCE | Patagonian cypress Fitzroya cupressoides |
Cordillera Pelada, Los Ríos | Chile | Alive.[۸][۹] New unconfirmed estimation of 5,484 years would make it the oldest (non-clonal) tree in the world.[۱۰] Located within Alerce Costero National Park.[۱۱] |
CBR26 | 3,266 | 1,245 BCE | Giant sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | Dead.[۸] |
D-21 | 3,220 | 1,199 BCE | Giant sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | Dead.[۸] |
D-23 | 3,075 | 1,054 BCE | Giant sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | Dead.[۸] |
CMC 3 | 3,033 | 1,012 BCE | Giant sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | Dead.[۸] |
Scofield Juniper | 2,675 | 654 BCE | Sierra juniper Juniperus grandis[۱۲] |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | Dead.[۸] |
BLK227 | ۲,۶۴۹ | 626 BCE | Bald cypress Taxodium distichum |
Three Sisters Cove, Black River (North Carolina) | United States | [۱۳] |
CB-90-11 | ۲,۴۶۷ | 443 BCE | Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine Pinus aristata |
Central Colorado | United States | [۸][۱۴] |
Panke Baobab | 2,419 | 398 BCE | African baobab Adansonia digitata |
Matabeleland North | Zimbabwe | Died in 2011; the oldest non-clonal angiosperm ever documented.[۱۵] |
Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi | ۲,۳۱۰ | 287 BCE | Sacred fig Ficus religiosa |
Anuradhapura, North Central Province | Sri Lanka | A sapling claimed to be from the Bodhi tree, the legendary tree under which the Buddha is said to have become enlightened. It was brought to its current location and planted at around 288 BCE by Sanghamitra, daughter of Emperor Ashoka. It is the oldest living human-planted tree in the world with a known planting date.[۱۶] |
? | 2,230 | 209 BCE | Qilian juniper Juniperus przewalskii |
Delingha, Qinghai Province | China | [۸] |
? | 2,200 | 179 BCE | Coast redwood Sequoia sempervirens |
Northern California | United States | Dead.[۸] |
Bennett Juniper | 2,200 | 179 BCE | Sierra juniper Juniperus grandis[۱۲] |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | [۸] |
SHP 7 | 2,110 | 89 BCE | Foxtail pine Pinus balfouriana |
Sierra Nevada California | United States | [۸] |
BLK232 | 2,089 | 68 BCE | Bald cypress Taxodium distichum |
Three Sisters Cove, Black River (North Carolina) | United States | [۱۳] |
? | ۱,۹۵۰ | 74 | Subalpine larch Larix lyallii |
Kananaskis, Alberta | Canada | [۸][۱۷] |
CRE 175 | 1,889 | 133 | Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum |
Northern New Mexico | United States | [۸] |
Miles Juniper | ۱,۸۳۶ | 189 | Sierra juniper Juniperus grandis[نیازمند منبع] |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | [۸][۱۸] |
Jōmon Sugi | ۱,۸۱۲ | 212 | Sugi Cryptomeria japonica |
Yakushima Island | Japan | [۱۹] |
KET 3996 | ۱,۷۲۶ | 298 | Limber pine Pinus flexilis |
Ketchum, Idaho | United States | [۸][۲۰] |
BFR-46 | 1,697 | 325 | Limber pine Pinus flexilis |
Wasatch Mountains, Utah | United States | [۸] |
FL117 | ۱,۶۸۶ | 339 | Northern whitecedar Thuja occidentalis |
Ontario | Canada | [۸][۲۱] |
ERE | 1,670 | 352 | Limber pine Pinus flexilis |
Northern New Mexico | United States | [۸] |
RCR 1 | 1,666 | 356 | Foxtail pine Pinus balfouriana |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | [۸] |
? | 1,661 | 361 | Limber pine Pinus flexilis |
South Park (Park County, Colorado) | United States | [۸] |
BBL 2 | 1,649 | 373 | Foxtail pine Pinus balfouriana |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | [۸] |
BCK 69 | ۱,۶۵۸ | 376 | Bald cypress Taxodium distichum |
Bladen County, North Carolina | United States | [۸][۲۲] |
? | 1,636 | 386 | Nootka cypress Callitropsis nootkatensis |
Vancouver Island | Canada | [۸] |
FL101 | 1,567 | 455 | Northern whitecedar Thuja occidentalis |
Ontario | Canada | [۸] |
? | 1,542 | 480 | Limber pine Pinus flexilis |
Central Colorado | United States | [۸] |
Italus | ۱,۲۳۶ | 788 | Heldreich's pine Pinus heldreichii |
Pollino National Park | Italy | Alive. Oldest tree in Europe with verified age (radiocarbon calibrated tree-ring procedure).[۲۳] |
درختان قدیمی با سن تخمین زده شده
ویرایشتوجه: قدمت درختان موجود در این لیست بر اساس حدس و گمان و احتمالاً غیرقابل اعتماد است. ! style="width:10%;" |نام ! style="width:5%;" |سن (بر حسب سال) ! style="width:20%;" |گونهها ! style="width:10%;" |مکان ! style="width:10%;" |کشور ! style="width:40%;" |توضیح
Note: The ages of the trees in this list are speculative and only serve as estimates.
Name | Age (years) |
Species | Location | Country | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
"The Sisters" or "Sisters Olive Trees of Noah" | 6,000[۲۴] | Olive Olea europaea |
Bchaaleh, North Governorate | Lebanon | Folk legend also ascribes The Sisters as the source of the olive branch returned to Noah's Ark at the waning of the Biblical Flood.[۲۵][۲۶][۲۷] The trees still produce olives. |
Alerce Milenario or Gran Abuelo | 5,484 | Patagonian cypress Fitzroya cupressoides } |
Cordillera Pelada, Los Ríos | Chile | A new 2022 estimation of 5,484 years expands on a previous minimum age based on incomplete tree rings of ۳,۶۵۳.[۱۰][۱۱] |
?[nb ۲] | ۵,۰۷۶ | Great Basin bristlecone pine Pinus longaeva |
White Mountains (California) | United States | Tree cored by Edmund Schulman, age determined by Tom Harlan. However, core is missing and date is unconfirmed.[۸][۲۸] |
Llangernyw Yew | 4,000–5,000 | Common yew Taxus baccata |
Llangernyw, Conwy | United Kingdom | Girth of 10.75 m. Situated in the churchyard of St Dygain's Church in Llangernyw village, Wales. One of the 50 Great British Trees. |
Sarv-e Abarkuh | 4,500 | Mediterranean cypress Cupressus sempervirens |
Abarkuh, Yazd | Iran | Also called "Zoroastrian Sarv".[۲۹][۳۰] |
Gümeli Porsuğu | 4,115 | Yew Taxus baccata |
Zonguldak | Turkey | Alive, found in 2016.[۳۱][۳۲] |
The Ancient Yew | 4,000 | Yew Taxus baccata |
Tisbury, Wiltshire | United Kingdom | 37 feet in circumference. Situated in the churchyard of St John's, Tisbury. Carbon dated by David Bellamy.[۳۳] |
The Senator | 3,500 | Pond cypress Taxodium ascendens |
Longwood, Florida | United States | Died in January 2012 from human-caused fire.[۳۴][۳۵] |
Oliveira do Mouchão (KNJ1/601) | 3,350 | European olive tree
Olea europea L. var. europaea |
Mouriscas, Abrantes | Portugal | Alive.[۳۶][۳۷] |
Great Camphor of Takeo | 3000+ | Cinnamomum camphora "Camphor Tree" |
Takeo, Saga | Japan | A large Camphor tree reputed to be over 3,000 years old.[۳۸] Worshipped at a Shinto shrine dedicated to the tree, dating back to the 700s C.E.[۳۹] Alive. |
The President | 3,200 | Giant sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum |
Sierra Nevada, California | United States | Alive. |
Fortingall Yew | 3,000 | Common yew Taxus baccata |
Fortingall, Perthshire | United Kingdom | Alive. Possibly the oldest tree in Britain.[۴۰][۴۱][نیازمند شفافسازی] |
Alishan Sacred Tree | 3,000 | Formosan cypress Chamaecyparis formosensis |
Alishan National Scenic Area, Chiayi | Taiwan | Collapsed on July 1, 1997, following heavy rainstorms.[۴۲] |
S'Ozzastru | 3,000–4,000 | Olive Olea europaea |
Luras, Sardinia | Italy | [۴۳] |
Patriarca da Floresta | 3,020 | Jequitibá-rosa | Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, São Paulo | Brazil | Alive. Probably the oldest non-conifer in Brazil. Its name translates as "Patriarch of the Forest". Located at the Vassununga State Park.[۴۴] |
Raintree | 3,000 | Great Basin bristlecone pine | Spring Mountains, Nevada | United States | Great Basin Bristlecone Pine located near Kyle Canyon in the Spring Mountain range in Southern Nevada, USA. Estimated 3000 years old but never cored. |
Oliveira de Santa Iria de Azóia | 2,850 | Olive Olea europaea |
Santa Iria de Azóia , Loures, Lisbon | Portugal | Magnificent Olive tree, probably the last one from a large olive grove. Studied by UTAD University and now classified "Public interest tree" by the Portuguese National Forest Authority; Tree ID[۴۵] |
Mother of the Forest | 2,520 | Giant sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum |
Sierra Nevada, Calaveras Big Trees State Park, California | United States | Dead. |
Sarv Zibad | 2,500 | Mediterranean cypress Cupressus sempervirens |
Sarv Zibad, Khorasan | Iran | Also called "holly Sarv".[۲۹][۳۰] |
General Sherman | 2,300–2,700 | Giant sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum |
Giant Forest, Sequoia National Park, California | United States | Alive with a height of 83.8 meters (275 ft), a diameter of 11 m (36 ft) at its base, and an estimated bole volume of 1,487 m3 (52,513 cu ft), it is the largest known living single-stem tree, and among the tallest, widest, and longest-lived of all trees on the planet.[۴۶][۴۷] |
Kayano Ōsugi | 2,300 | Japanese cedar Cryptomeria japonica |
Yamanaka Onsen, Ishikawa | Japan | Girth of 9.6 m. One of the four trees believed to be sacred in the precincts in a Shinto shrine. Its name translates as "Great Sugi of Kayano". |
Oliveira de Santa Luzia | 2,210 | Olive Olea europaea |
Santa Luzia, Tavira, Algarve | Portugal | Alive.[۴۸] |
Jōmon Sugi | 2,170–7,200 | Japanese cedar Cryptomeria japonica |
Yakushima | Japan | Girth of 16.4 m. Exact dating is made difficult by the rotten core of the trunk. Its name is a reference to the Jōmon period of Japanese prehistory.[۴۹][۵۰][۵۱] |
Koca Katran | 2,022 | Lebanon cedar Cedrus libani |
Antalya | Turkey | Alive.[۵۲] |
Ballyconnell Yew | 2,000–5,000 | Yew Taxus baccata |
Ballyconnell, Annagh | Ireland | Oldest tree in Ireland.[نیازمند منبع] |
Elia Vouvon | 2,000–5,000 | Olive Olea europaea |
Kolymvari, Crete | Greece | Its name translates as "Olive Tree of Vouves".[۵۳] |
Castagnu dê Centu Cavaddi | 2,000–4,000 | Sweet chestnut Castanea sativa |
Sicily | Italy | Its name translates as the "Hundred Horse Chestnut". |
Ulleungdo Hyangnamu | 2,000–3,000 | Chinese juniper Juniperus chinensis |
Ulleung-gun, Gyeongbuk | South Korea | Girth of 4.5 m. One of the main branch was broken in 1985 by typhoon "Brenda". |
Lady Liberty | 2,000 | Bald cypress Taxodium distichum |
Longwood, Florida | United States | Sometimes called the "Companion Tree" to 'Senator". |
Tnjri | 2,000 | Oriental plane Platanus orientalis |
Martuni Region | Artsakh (de facto) / Azerbaijan (de jure) | Oldest tree in de facto Republic of Artsakh, de jure a part of Azerbaijan. Its trunk is hollow. Also known as "Sose's Tree". |
Stara Maslina | 2,000 | Olive Olea europaea |
Stari Bar, Bar | Montenegro | |
The Pechanga Great Oak Tree | 2,000 | Coast live oak Quercus agrifolia |
Temecula, California | United States | Oldest oak tree in the United States, possibly in the world. |
Tejo Milenario | 2,000+ | Yew Taxus baccata |
Cazorla, Jaén | Spain | Oldest tree in Spain.[۵۴] |
? | 2,000 | Olive Olea europaea |
Exo Hora, Zakynthos | Greece | [۵۵] |
? | 2,000 | Yew Taxus |
Sochi, Krasnodar Krai | Russia | A grove known to possess several 2,000-year-old specimens.[۵۶] |
Houkisugi at Nakagawa | 2,000 | Japanese cedar Cryptomeria japonica |
Nakagawa Settlement, Yamakita, Kanagawa | Japan | |
Methuselah | 1,800 | Coast redwood Sequoia sempervirens |
Woodside, California | United States | [۵۷] |
Araucaria Madre | 1,800 | Araucaria araucana | Araucanía | Chile | Located in Parque Nacional Conguillío. 1,800 rings account for at least 1,800 years.[۵۸] |
Granit oak | 1,700 | Pedunculate oak Quercus robur |
Granit | Bulgaria | |
Kongeegen | 1,500–2,000 | Pedunculate oak Quercus robur |
Jægerspris Nordskov, Zealand | Denmark | [۵۹] |
Stelmužė Oak | 1,500–2,000 | Pedunculate oak Quercus robur |
Stelmužė, Zarasai | Lithuania | Oldest tree in the Baltic states. Supposedly oldest oak in Europe. |
Vilémovice Yew | 1,500–2,000 | Common yew Taxus baccata |
Vilémovice | Czech Republic | ۳۴۵ سانتیمتر (۱۳۶ اینچ) in circumference.[۶۰] |
Aubépines | 1,500 | Common hawthorn Crataegus monogyna |
Saint-Mars-sur-la-Futaie, Mayenne | France | Oldest tree in France.[۶۱] |
Jardine Juniper | 1,500 | Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum |
Logan Canyon, Utah | United States | [۶۲] |
Árbol del Tule | 1,433–1,600 | Montezuma cypress Taxodium mucronatum |
Santa María del Tule, Oaxaca | Mexico | Stoutest tree trunk in the world. Its name translates as the "Tule Tree". |
Baikushev's pine | 1,300 | white fir Pinus heldreichii |
Pirin Mountains | Bulgaria | Oldest known coniferous tree in Bulgaria. It is named after its discoverer, forest ranger Kostadin Baikushev. |
Te Matua Ngahere | 1,200–4,000 | Kauri Agathis australis |
Waipoua Forest, Northland | New Zealand | Oldest tree in New Zealand. Its name translates as "Father of the Forest". |
Algarrobo Abuelo | 1,200+ | Algarrobo Prosopis chilensis |
Villa de Merlo, San Luis Province | Argentina | Possibly oldest algarrobo in Argentina.[نیازمند منبع] |
درختهای کلونی
ویرایشمانند همه گیاهان و قارچهای طولانی مدت، هیچ بخش جدا از پرگَنهٔ تاگی زنده نیست (به معنای متابولیسم فعال) بیش از کسری بسیار کمی از زندگی کل کلون. برخی از پرگنهها ممکن است کاملاً از طریق سیستمهای ریشه ای خود متصل شوند، در حالی که بیشتر آنها به هم پیوسته نیستند، اما کلونهای ژنتیکی یکسان هستند که از طریق تولید مثل رویشی ، منطقه را جمع می کنند. تخمینها برای پرگنههای تاگی، اغلب براساس نرخ رشد فعلی است. [نیازمند منبع]
! style="width:10%;" | نام ! style="width:10%;" | سن (بر حسب سال) ! style="width:20%;" | گونهها ! style="width:10%;" | مکان ! style="width:10%;" | کشور ! style="width:40%;" | توضیح
Name | Age (years) |
Species | Location | Country | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antarctic Beech | less than 70 million years[۶۳] | Antarctic beech Nothofagus moorei |
Repeater Station Road, Springbrook National Park, Queensland | Australia | Three individuals approximately 2000 years old are the parent trees to others in the surrounding forest; they grow clones by coppicing new shoots radially, forming a ring at the base of the parent tree trunk.[۶۴] |
Wollemi Pines | 60+ million years | Wollemi pine Wollemia nobilis |
Wollemi National Park, New South Wales | Australia | According to Cris Brack and Matthew Brookhouse at the ANU Fenner School of Environment & Society: "Once you accept that a common, genetically identical stock can define a tree, then the absolute “winner” for oldest tree (or the oldest clonal material belonging to a tree) [in Australia] must go to the Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis). It may be more than 60 million years old. The Wollemi pine clones itself, forming exact genetic copies. It was thought to be extinct until a tiny remnant population was discovered in Wollemi National Park in 1994... There is also substantial evidence that the tree has been cloning itself and its unique genes ever since it disappeared from the fossil record more than 60 million years ago."[۶۵] |
Unknown | 43,600–130,000 | King's lomatia Lomatia tasmanica |
Southwest National Park, Tasmania | Australia | Lomatia tasmanica is an endangered species with only one population, consisting of several hundred genetically identical individuals. Although it flowers occasionally, fruit production has never been observed, and it propagates vegetatively. Fossilized leaves are dated as at least 43,600 years old, found in sediments with a maximum age of 130,000.[۶۶] |
Pando | less than 14,000[۶۷]–80,000[۶۸] | Quaking aspen Populus tremuloides |
Fishlake National Forest, Utah | United States | Covers ۱۰۷ جریب فرنگی (۰٫۴۳ کیلومتر مربع) and has around 47,000 stems (aged up to 130 years), which continually die and are renewed by its roots. Is also the heaviest-known organism, weighing 6,000 tonnes. |
Jurupa Oak[۶۹] | 13,000[۷۰] | Palmer oak Quercus palmeri |
Jurupa Mountains, California | United States | Quercus palmeri Engelm. = Quercus dunnii Kellogg.[۷۰] |
Old Tjikko | 9,550 | Norway spruce Picea abies |
Fulufjället National Park, Dalarna | Sweden | The tree's stems live no more than 600 years, but its root system's age[۷۱][۷۲] was established using carbon dating and genetic matching.[۷۳] Elsewhere in the Fulu mountains, 20 spruces have been found older than 8,000 years.[۷۴] |
Old Rasmus | 9,500 | Norway spruce Picea abies |
Sonfjället, Härjedalen | Sweden | [۷۵] |
Mongarlowe mallee | 3,000–13,000 | Mongarlowe mallee Eucalyptus recurva |
Mongarlowe, New South Wales | Australia | Alive. A critically endangered species, known only from 6 wild individuals, first described in the 1980s. Based on the size and growth rate of its lignotuber, the largest single specimen is estimated to be 3,000 years old. However, it is possible that two other specimens are actually the result of a split in the original rootstock, and based on their spread of 26m would be estimated at 13,000 years old, potentially the oldest single tree on earth.[۷۶] |
unknown | 3,000[۷۷]–10,000[۷۸] | Huon pine Lagarostrobos franklinii |
Mount Read, Tasmania | Australia | Several genetically identical males that have reproduced vegetatively. Although single trees in this stand may be around 3 to 4 thousand years old, the stand itself as a single organism has existed for 10,000 years.[۵] |
یادداشت
ویرایشمنابع
ویرایش- ↑ Grant, Michael C. (1 October 1993). "The Trembling Giant". Discover Magazine. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2008.
- ↑ "Botanical Record-Breakers". W.P Armstrong. Archived from the original on 19 December 2010. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
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<ref>
غیرمجاز؛ متنی برای یادکردهای با نامPando_14000
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