تفاوت میان نسخه‌های «امواج شوک»

امواج شوک (ویرایش)

نسخهٔ ‏۲۰ فوریهٔ ۲۰۱۵، ساعت ۱۸:۰۳

۲۲٬۱۲۲ بایت حذف‌شده ،  ۵ سال پیش
جز
ویرایش Nshervsampad (بحث) به آخرین تغییری که Far-gh انجام داده بود واگردانده شد
جز (ویرایش Nshervsampad (بحث) به آخرین تغییری که Far-gh انجام داده بود واگردانده شد)
{{در دست ویرایش ۲|ماه=فوریه|روز=۲۲|سال=۲۰۱۵|چند = 2}}
'''امواج شوک''' (Shock waves) نوعی نوعی اختلال پیش رونده میباشد. این موج به موجی گفته می شود در داخل مایعات٬ گازها٬ و پلاسما موجی با سرعتی بیشتر از سرعت صوت حرکت کند. امواج شوک مانند سایر انواع موج حامل انرژی می باشند که در داخل محیط به پیش می رود. این موج با تغییرات ناگهانی و پرش‌گونه در فشار٬ دما و حجم مخصوص قابل شناسایی و ارزیابی است.
 
[[رده:امواج شوک]]
[[رده:دینامیک سیالات]]
 
 
 
 
[[Image:Schlierenfoto Mach 1-2 Pfeilflügel - NASA.jpg|thumb|right]]
 
A '''shock wave''' is a type of propagating disturbance. When a [[wave]] moves faster than the [[speed of sound]] in a [[liquid]], [[gas]] or [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] (a "[[fluid]]", in physics terminology) it is a shock wave. Like an ordinary wave, a shock wave carries energy, and can propagate through a medium. It is characterized by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous change in [[pressure]], [[temperature]] and [[density]] of the medium.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Anderson | first = John D. Jr.
| title = Fundamentals of Aerodynamics | origyear = 1984 | edition = 3rd
| publisher = [[McGraw-Hill|McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math]] |date=January 2001
| isbn = 0-07-237335-0 }}</ref> In supersonic flows, expansion is achieved through an [[expansion fan]].
 
Unlike [[soliton]]s (another kind of nonlinear wave), the energy of a shock wave dissipates relatively quickly with distance. Also, the accompanying expansion wave approaches and eventually merges with the shock wave, partially cancelling it out. Thus the [[sonic boom]] associated with the passage of a supersonic aircraft is the sound wave resulting from the degradation and merging of the shock wave and the expansion wave produced by the aircraft.
 
When a shock wave passes through matter, the total energy is preserved but the energy which can be extracted as work decreases and the entropy increases. This, for example, creates additional [[wave drag|drag]] force on aircraft with shocks.
 
Shock waves can also travel through [[solid]]s, or in some cases in the absence of a material medium, through a [[field (physics)|field]] such as an [[electromagnetic field]].{{fact|date=November 2014}}
 
==Terminology==
Shock waves can be:
* Normal: at 90° (perpendicular) to the shock medium's flow direction.
* [[Oblique shock|Oblique]]: at an angle to the direction of flow.
* [[Bow shock (aerodynamics)|Bow]]: Occurs upstream of the front ([[Bow (ship)|bow]]) of a blunt object when the upstream flow velocity exceeds Mach 1.
Some other terms
* Shock Front: an alternative name for the shock wave itself
* Contact Front: in a shock wave caused by a driver gas (for example the "impact" of a high explosive on the surrounding air), the boundary between the driver (explosive products) and the driven (air) gases. The Contact Front trails the Shock Front.
 
== In supersonic flows ==
[[Image:Pressure plot.png|200px|thumb|Pressure-time diagram at an external observation point for the case of a supersonic object propagating past the observer. The leading edge of the object causes a shock (left, in red) and the trailing edge of the object causes an expansion (right, in blue).]]
 
The abruptness of change in the features of the medium, that characterize shock waves, can be viewed as a [[phase transition]]: the pressure-time diagram of a supersonic object propagating shows how the transition induced by a shock wave is analogous to a ''dynamic phase transition''.
 
When an object (or disturbance) moves faster than the information about it can be propagated into the surrounding fluid, fluid near the disturbance cannot react or "get out of the way" before the disturbance arrives. In a shock wave the properties of the fluid ([[density]], [[pressure]], [[temperature]], [[flow velocity]], [[Mach number]]) change almost instantaneously. Measurements of the thickness of shock waves in air have resulted in values around 200 nm (about 10<sup>−5</sup> in),<ref>[Introduction To Fluid Mechanics Fourth Edition, Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald ISBN 0-471-54852-9]</ref> which is on the same order of magnitude as the mean free gas molecule path. In reference to the continuum, this implies the shock wave can be treated as either a line or a plane if the flow field is two-dimensional or three-dimensional, respectively.
 
Shock waves form when the speed of a fluid changes by more than the [[speed of sound]].<ref>{{Citation | title=High-speed Imaging of Shock Wave, Explosions and Gunshots | publisher=American Scientist | volume=94 | issue=1 | year=2006 | pages= 22–31 | first1=Gary S. | last1=Settles}}</ref> At the region where this occurs sound waves travelling against the flow reach a point where they cannot travel any further upstream and the pressure progressively builds in that region, and a high pressure shock wave rapidly forms.
 
Shock waves are not conventional sound waves; a shock wave takes the form of a very sharp change in the gas properties on the order of a few [[mean free path]]s (roughly micrometers at atmospheric conditions) in thickness. Shock waves in air are heard as a loud "crack" or "snap" noise. Over longer distances a shock wave can change from a nonlinear wave into a linear wave, degenerating into a conventional sound wave as it heats the air and loses energy. The sound wave is heard as the familiar "thud" or "thump" of a [[sonic boom]], commonly created by the [[supersonic]] flight of aircraft.
 
The shock wave is one of several different ways in which a gas in a supersonic flow can be compressed. Some other methods are [[Isentropic process#Isentropic flow|isentropic]] compressions, including [[Ludwig Prandtl|Prandtl]]-Meyer compressions. The method of compression of a gas results in different temperatures and densities for a given pressure ratio, which can be analytically calculated for a non-reacting gas. A shock wave compression results in a loss of total pressure, meaning that it is a less efficient method of compressing gases for some purposes, for instance in the intake of a [[scramjet]]. The appearance of pressure-drag on supersonic aircraft is mostly due to the effect of shock compression on the flow.
 
== Normal shocks ==
In elementary fluid mechanics utilizing ideal gases, a shock wave is treated as a discontinuity where entropy increases over a nearly infinitesimal region. Since no fluid flow is discontinuous, a [[control volume]] is established around the shock wave, with the control surfaces that bound this volume parallel to the shock wave (with one surface on the pre-shock side of the fluid medium and one on the post-shock side). The two surfaces are separated by a very small depth such that the shock itself is entirely contained between them. At such control surfaces, momentum, mass flux, and energy are constant; within combustion [[detonation]]s can be modelled as heat introduction across a shock wave. It is assumed the system is adiabatic (no heat exits or enters the system) and no work is being done. The [[Rankine–Hugoniot conditions]] arise from these considerations.
 
Taking into account the established assumptions, in a system where the downstream properties are becoming subsonic: the upstream and downstream flow properties of the fluid are considered [[Isentropic_process|isentropic]]. Since the total amount of energy within the system is constant, the stagnation enthalpy remains constant over both regions. Though, entropy is increasing this must be accounted for by a drop in stagnation pressure of the downstream fluid.
 
== Other shocks ==
=== Oblique shocks ===
When analyzing shock waves in a flow field, which are still attached to the body, the shock wave which is deviating at some arbitrary angle from the flow direction is termed oblique shock. These shocks require a component vector analysis of the flow; doing so allows for the treatment of the flow in an orthogonal direction to the oblique shock as a normal shock.
 
=== Bow shocks ===
When an oblique shock is likely to form at an angle which can not remain on the surface, a nonlinear phenomenon arises where the shock wave will form a continuous pattern around the body. These are termed [[Bow shock (aerodynamics)|bow shocks]]. In these cases, the 1d flow model is not valid and a complex analysis is needed to predict the pressure forces which are exerted on the surface.
 
== Due to nonlinear steepening ==
Shock waves can form due to steepening of ordinary waves. The best-known example of this phenomenon is [[ocean wave]]s that form [[breaking wave|breakers]] on the [[shore]]. In shallow water, the speed of surface waves is dependent on the depth of the water. An incoming ocean wave has a slightly higher wave speed near the crest of each wave than near the troughs between waves, because the wave height is not infinitesimal compared to the depth of the water. The crests overtake the troughs until the leading edge of the wave forms a vertical face and spills over to form a turbulent shock (a breaker) that dissipates the wave's energy as sound and heat.
 
Similar phenomena affect strong [[sound wave]]s in gas or plasma, due to the dependence of the [[sound speed]] on [[temperature]] and [[pressure]]. Strong waves heat the medium near each pressure front, due to adiabatic compression of the air itself, so that high pressure fronts outrun the corresponding pressure troughs. While shock formation by this process does not normally happen to sound waves in Earth's atmosphere, it is thought to be one mechanism by which the [[Sun|solar]] [[chromosphere]] and [[corona]] are heated, via waves that propagate up from the solar interior.
 
==Analogies==
A shock wave may be described as the furthest point upstream of a moving object which "knows" about the approach of the object. In this description, the shock wave position is defined as the boundary between the zone having no information about the shock-driving event, and the zone aware of the shock-driving event, analogous with the [[light cone]] described in the theory of [[special relativity]].
 
To produce a shock wave, an object in a given medium (such as air, or water) must travel faster than the local speed of sound. In the case of an aircraft travelling at high subsonic speed, regions of air around the aircraft may be travelling at exactly the speed of sound, so that the sound waves leaving the aircraft pile up on one another, similar to a traffic jam on a freeway. When a shock wave forms, the local air pressure increases, and then spreads out sideways. Because of this amplification effect, a shock wave can be very intense, more like an explosion when heard at a distance (not coincidentally, since explosions create shock waves).
 
Analogous phenomena are known outside fluid mechanics. For example, particles accelerated beyond the [[speed of light]] in a [[refraction|refractive medium]] (where the speed of light is less than that in a [[vacuum]], such as [[water]]) create visible shock effects, a phenomenon known as [[Cherenkov radiation]].
 
== Phenomena types ==
Below are a number of examples of shock waves, broadly grouped with similar shock phenomena:
 
[[Image:Trinity explosion film strip.jpg|thumb|right| Shock wave propagating into a stationary medium, ahead of the fireball of an explosion. The shock is made visible by the [[Shadowgraph|shadow effect]] (Trinity explosion.)]]
 
=== Moving shock ===
* Usually consists of a shockwave propagating into a stationary medium
* In this case, the gas ahead of the shock is stationary (in the laboratory frame), and the gas behind the shock can be supersonic in the laboratory frame. The shock propagates with a wavefront which is normal (at right angles) to the direction of flow. The speed of the shock is a function of the original pressure ratio between the two bodies of gas.
* [[Moving shock]]s are usually generated by the interaction of two bodies of gas at different pressure, with a shock wave propagating into the lower pressure gas, and an expansion wave propagating into the higher pressure gas.
* Examples: Balloon bursting, [[Shock tube]], [[Blast wave|shock wave from explosion]]
 
=== Detonation wave ===
{{Main|Detonation}}
* A [[detonation]] wave is essentially a shock supported by a trailing [[exothermic reaction]]. It involves a wave traveling through a highly combustible or chemically unstable medium, such as an oxygen-methane mixture or a high explosive. The chemical reaction of the medium occurs following the shock wave, and the chemical energy of the reaction drives the wave forward.
* A detonation wave follows slightly different rules from an ordinary shock since it is driven by the chemical reaction occurring behind the shock wavefront. In the simplest theory for detonations, an unsupported, self-propagating detonation wave proceeds at the [[Chapman-Jouguet condition|Chapman-Jouguet]] flow velocity. A detonation will also cause a shock of type 1, above to propagate into the surrounding air due to the overpressure induced by the explosion.
* When a shockwave is created by [[high explosive]]s such as [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]] (which has a [[detonation velocity]] of 6,900&nbsp;m/s), it will always travel at high, [[supersonic]] velocity from its point of origin.
 
[[Image:Photography of bow shock waves around a brass bullet, 1888.jpg|thumb|right|[[Schlieren photography|Schlieren photograph]] of the detached shock on a bullet in supersonic flight, published by Ernst Mach and Peter Salcher in 1887.]]
[[File:Supersonic-bullet-shadowgram-Settles.tif|thumb|Shadowgram of shock waves from a supersonic bullet fired from a rifle. The shadowgraph optical technique reveals that the bullet is moving at about a Mach number of 1.9. Left- and right-running bow waves and tail waves stream back from the bullet, and its turbulent wake is also visible. Patterns at the far right are from unburned gunpowder particles ejected by the rifle.]]
 
=== Bow shock (detached shock) ===
{{main article|Bow shock (aerodynamics)}}
* These shocks are curved, and form a small distance in front of the body. Directly in front of the body, they stand at 90 degrees to the oncoming flow, and then curve around the body. Detached shocks allow the same type of analytic calculations as for the attached shock, for the flow near the shock. They are a topic of continuing interest, because the rules governing the shock's distance ahead of the blunt body are complicated, and are a function of the body's shape. Additionally, the shock standoff distance varies drastically with the temperature for a non-ideal gas, causing large differences in the heat transfer to the thermal protection system of the vehicle. See the extended discussion on this topic at [[Atmospheric reentry]]. These follow the "strong-shock" solutions of the analytic equations, meaning that for some oblique shocks very close to the deflection angle limit, the downstream Mach number is subsonic. See also [[Bow shock (aerodynamics)|bow shock]] or [[oblique shock]]
* Such a shock occurs when the maximum deflection angle is exceeded. A detached shock is commonly seen on blunt bodies, but may also be seen on sharp bodies at low Mach numbers.
* Examples: Space return vehicles (Apollo, Space shuttle), bullets, the boundary ([[Bow shock]]) of a [[magnetosphere]]. The name "bow shock" comes from the example of a [[bow wave]], the detached shock formed at the bow (front) of a ship or boat moving through water, whose slow surface wave speed is easily exceeded (see [[ocean surface wave]]).
 
=== Attached shock ===
* These shocks appear as ''attached'' to the tip of sharp bodies moving at supersonic speeds.
* Examples: Supersonic wedges and cones with small apex angles.
* The attached shock wave is a classic structure in aerodynamics because, for a perfect gas and inviscid flow field, an analytic solution is available, such that the pressure ratio, temperature ratio, angle of the wedge and the downstream Mach number can all be calculated knowing the upstream Mach number and the shock angle. Smaller shock angles are associated with higher upstream Mach numbers, and the special case where the shock wave is at 90° to the oncoming flow (Normal shock), is associated with a Mach number of one. These follow the "weak-shock" solutions of the analytic equations.
 
=== In rapid granular flows ===
Shock waves can also occur in rapid flows of dense granular materials down inclined channels or slopes. Strong shocks in rapid dense granular flows can be studied theoretically and analyzed to compare with experimental data. Consider a configuration in which the rapidly moving material down the chute impinges on an obstruction wall erected perpendicular at the end of a long and steep channel. Impact leads to a sudden change in the flow regime from a fast moving [[Supercritical flow|supercritical]] thin layer to a stagnant thick heap. This flow configuration is particularly interesting because it is analogous to some hydraulic and aerodynamic situations associated with flow regime changes from supercritical to subcritical flows.
 
=== In astrophysics ===
{{Main|Shock waves in astrophysics}}
Astrophysical environments feature many different types of shock waves. Some common examples are [[supernova]]e shock waves or blast waves travelling through the interstellar medium, the [[bow shock]] caused by the Earth's magnetic field colliding with the [[solar wind]] and shock waves caused by [[Galaxy|galaxies]] colliding with each other. Another interesting type of shock in astrophysics is the quasi-steady reverse shock or termination shock that terminates the ultra relativistic wind from young pulsars.
 
====Meteor entering events====
[[File:Chelyabinsk meteor event consequences in Drama Theatre.jpg|thumb|Damage caused by [[2013 Russian meteor event|a meteor's shock wave]].]]
 
The [[Tunguska event]] and the [[2013 Russian meteor event]] are the best documented evidence of the shock wave produced by a [[Meteoroid#Notable meteors|massive meteoroid]].
 
When the 2013 meteor entered into the Earth’s atmosphere with an energy release equivalent to 100 or more kilotons of TNT, dozens of times more powerful than the [[Little Boy|atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima]], the meteor's shock wave produced damages as in a [[supersonic speed|supersonic]] jet's flyby (directly underneath the meteor's path) and as a [[detonation wave]], with the circular shock wave centred at the meteor explosion, causing multiple instances of broken glass in the city of [[Chelyabinsk]] and neighbouring areas (pictured).
 
== Technological applications==
In the examples below, the shock wave is controlled, produced by (ex. airfoil) or in the interior of a technological device, like a [[turbine]].
 
=== Recompression shock ===
[[Image:Transonic flow patterns.svg|thumb|right|Recompression shock on a transonic flow airfoil, at and above [[critical Mach number]].]]
* These shocks appear when the flow over a transonic body is decelerated to subsonic speeds.
* Examples: Transonic wings, turbines
* Where the flow over the suction side of a transonic wing is accelerated to a supersonic speed, the resulting re-compression can be by either Prandtl-Meyer compression or by the formation of a normal shock. This shock is of particular interest to makers of transonic devices because it can cause separation of the boundary layer at the point where it touches the transonic profile. This can then lead to full separation and stall on the profile, higher drag, or shock-buffet, a condition where the separation and the shock interact in a resonance condition, causing resonating loads on the underlying structure.
 
=== Pipe flow ===
* This shock appears when supersonic flow in a pipe is decelerated.
* Examples:
:*In Supersonic Propulsion -- [[ramjet]], [[scramjet]], [[unstart]].
:*In Flow Control -- needle valve, choked venturi.
* In this case the gas ahead of the shock is supersonic (in the laboratory frame), and the gas behind the shock system is either supersonic (''oblique shock''s) or subsonic (a ''normal shock'') (Although for some oblique shocks very close to the deflection angle limit, the downstream Mach number is subsonic.) The shock is the result of the deceleration of the gas by a converging duct, or by the growth of the boundary layer on the wall of a parallel duct.
 
=== Combustion engines===
The [[wave disk engine]] (also named "Radial Internal Combustion Wave Rotor") is a kind of [[pistonless rotary engine]] that utilizes ''shock waves'' to transfer energy between a high-energy fluid to a low-energy fluid, thereby increasing both temperature and pressure of the low-energy fluid.
 
==See also==
* [[Atmospheric focusing]]
* [[Atmospheric reentry]]
* [[Čerenkov radiation]]
* [[Explosion]]
* [[Hydraulic jump]]
* [[Kerner’s breakdown minimization principle]]
* [[Mach wave]]
* [[Magnetopause]]
* [[Moreton wave]]
* [[Normal shock tables]]
* [[Oblique shock]]
* [[Prandtl–Meyer expansion fan]]
* [[Shocks and Discontinuities (MHD)]]
* [[Shock (mechanics)]]
* [[Sonic boom]]
* [[Three-phase traffic theory]]
* [[Traffic congestion: Reconstruction with Kerner's three-phase theory]]
* [[Supercritical airfoil]]
* [[Undercompressive shock wave]]
* [[Unstart]]
* [[Shock diamond]]
 
==References==
{{reflist}}
 
==External links==
{{Commons category|Shock waves}}
* NASA Glenn Research Center information on:
** [http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/oblique.html Oblique Shocks]
** [http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/crosshock.html Multiple Crossed Shocks]
** [http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/expans.html Expansion Fans]
* Selkirk college: Aviation intranet: High speed (supersonic) flight
** [http://selair.selkirk.bc.ca/aerodynamics1/High-Speed/Page2d.html Energy loss in a shock wave, normal and oblique shock waves]
** [http://selair.selkirk.bc.ca/aerodynamics1/High-Speed/Page2c.html Formation of a normal shock wave]
* [http://www.potto.org/gasDynamics/gasDynamics.php Fundamentals of compressible flow, 2007]
* [http://www.fieldp.com/kb.html KB] Commercial finite-element educational software to simulate shocks and detonations.
 
==Further reading==
* {{Citation |doi= 10.1140/epjh/e2011-10037-x |title= Shock wave physics and detonation physics — a stimulus for the emergence of numerous new branches in science and engineering |year= 2011 |last1= Krehl |first1= Peter O. K. |journal= [[European Physical Journal H]] |volume= 36 |pages= 85 |postscript= .|bibcode = 2011EPJH...36...85K }}
 
[[Category:Shock waves| ]]
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